The novella Passing, written by Nella Larsen, set in Harlem in the 1920s, follows the intertwining lives of two childhood friends who reconnect as adults. Irene, the perspective of the narrative in this book, is married to Brian Redfield and has two children, striving to navigate her racial identity and the daily challenges of family life. Clare, Irene’s childhood friend, marries John Bellew, a wealthy banking agent. Although both Irene and Clare are Black, their light skin allows them to pass as white. Brian, also Black, is aware of Irene’s racial identity, while John, a white racist, remains oblivious to Clare’s true heritage. Irene’s and Clare’s marriages present a stark contrast, through which Nella Larsen explores the complex interplay of race, gender, and societal expectations in early 20th-century America. Larsen reveals the consolidation and constraints of identity, privilege, and social mobility for women, especially women of color, within marriage.

The interactions between Irene and Brian reveal a dynamic characterized by unspoken tensions, portraying the complexities and underlying discord in their marital relationship. When Irene reads a letter Clare sends to her, “Brian Redfield had come into the room in that noiseless way which, in spite, of the years of their life together, still had the power to disconcert her” (Larsen, 62). The quote offers us a concise yet insightful glimpse of the dynamics of Irene and Brian’s marital relationship. Larsen describes Brian’s action as “noiseless,” and emphasizes the stealthiness of his actions, suggesting a level of intentionality in Brian’s behavior and hinting that he wants to avoid confrontation and discomfort within their relationship. Brian’s behavior also serves as a metaphor for the emotional distance within Irene and Brian’s relationship. Their interactions may be characterized by a lack of meaningful dialogue or connection, just as Brian enters into the room without alerting Irene, revealing the difficulty they may have in openly addressing their issues or expressing their true feelings. The phrase “in spite of the years of their life together” reflects on the contrast between stability and how time has changed their relationship. While the passage of time may have brought familiarity, for Irene it has not erased the underlying discomfort associated with Brian’s presence, as indicated by the word “disconcert.” This word choice hints at a dynamic within Irene and Brian’s marriage is characterized by unspoken tensions and emotional distance. Despite outward appearances of familiarity, there exists a deeper layer of complexity and discord within their marriage. When they revisit topics on which they hold different opinions, neither of them attempt to communicate and listen to the other’s viewpoint. Instead, they hurriedly switch to the next topic and start bouncing back and forth between those irrelevant subjects. Finally, Brian cannot bear the conversation’s unbearable nature, so he “silenced her, saying sharply: ‘Let’s not talk about it, please.’ And immediately, in his usual, slightly mocking tone he asked: ‘Are you ready to go now? I haven’t a great deal of time to wait’ ” (Larsen, 67). Brian’s abrupt action of silencing Irene implies the superficiality of their conversation content. Their discussions lack depth, making it awkward to continue. This also indicates the shallow nature of their relationship and the presence of tension along with many unresolved issues. Brian’s sharp tone and dismissive attitude suggest a reluctance to address or simply confront these tensions directly, resulting in a repressive pattern of avoidance in their interactions. Subsequently, Brian employs a mocking tone towards Irene. This tone not only conveys Brian’s belief that Irene’s viewpoints and concerns were insignificant and not worthy of serious consideration, but it also emphasizes Brian’s attempt to evade the need for sincere communication, allowing him to maintain the status quo and avoid discomfort. Coupled with Brian’s repeated use of such mocking tone towards Irene previously, it is evident that Larsen intends to emphasize the emotional distance in their marriage. “I haven’t a great deal of time to wait” is another phrase that comes from Brian’s mouth. From our life experience, this statement is often used to express impatience with someone not very close. If it were someone close, such as parents or lover, one wouldn’t easily utter such belittling words. In addition, Larsen’s use of the word “immediately” proves Brian’s lack of forethought before saying he needed to leave, further showing that Brian doesn’t regard Irene as someone he cares about a lot; he’s becoming impatient with Irene. This also indirectly suggests the emotional distance that is still present between the two. All of the descriptions of the couple’s interaction add complexity to their relationship and exacerbates the underlying tension between them. This begets the question: why does Irene marry someone whom she doesn’t love very much? The answer is quite evident: either for the sake of children or to solidify her social status. However, a series of conflicts in their marriage reflect that, all Irene targets in the marriage is to secure her social status.

The marriage between Irene and Brian is also marked by an array of arguments, reflecting the subtle power struggles between their respective desires, priorities, and interpretations of their roles within the relationship. While Brian drives Irene to the printing office, Irene brings up the topic of transferring Junior, their ten-year old eldest son, to a European school. She claims that Junior might be influenced by older kids’ “queer ideas” and wants him to grow up carefree in a better school, without having to face overly mature topics too soon. From today’s perspective, transferring Junior to a better school seems like Irene’s way of looking out for his future. However, Irene never mentions that Junior could receive a better education in a European-style school; instead, she solely focuses on the aspect of preventing Junior’s exposure from unnecessary “sexual” conversations. But Brian firmly rejects her proposal: 

“Exactly! And you are trying to make a molly-coddle out of him. Well, just let me tell you, I won’t have it. And you needn’t think I’m going to let you change him to some nice kindergarten kind of a school because he’s getting a little necessary education. I won’t! He’ll stay right where he is. The sooner and the more he learns about sex, the better for him. And most certainly if he learns that it’s a grand joke, the greatest in the world. It’ll keep him from lots of disappointments later on.” (Larsen, 71)

Their conversation ends on a negative note. The breakdown in the communication here hints at a broader difference in philosophy and disagreement between Irene and Brian. If the couple are simply talking about sex education and parenting, there’s absolutely no need for the conversation to end so unpleasantly. However, Brian has a motive for speaking this way: he knows Irene suppresses his desires. His biting remarks are full of contempt and frustration, and betray an internal struggle against Irene’s perceived suppression of his desires. Brian’s parenting style is clearly different from Irene’s. Irene holds her own strong opinions day by day and she prohibits Brian’s idea from being put into action, which, over time, makes him resentful. This suppression likely extends beyond the immediate context of the conversation, indicating a deeper power dynamic within the family structure. The couple’s two completely different outlooks on life lead to possible quarrels in daily life. This is also seen from another quarrel between Irene and Brian when Ted, their younger son, asked about lynching towards colored people on dinner table. Again, Irene wants to protect the children and wants them to learn about those topics when they are more mature, but Brian claims that he is properly preparing them for their future happiness by exposing them to such ideas: 

“...I’d feel I hadn’t done my duty by them if I didn’t give them some inkling of what’s before them. It’s the least I can do. I wanted to get them out of this hellish place years ago. You wouldn’t let me. I gave up the idea, because you objected. Don’t expect me to give up everything.” (Larsen, 133)

Brian once again used long, powerful sentences to refute Irene’s point. From Irene’s perspective, we can see that she wants her, her husband, and her kids to be “safe” and“stable,” while Brian claims to let the kids see the world more realistically and prepare them for their future. Brian sees Harlem as a “hellish place”. He has long had a desire to go to South America to experience a society that offers more equality. In their marriage, Irene has already suppressed his desire multiple times, and he gives up his own desire. But this time, Irene tries to interfere and control Brian’s loved kids’ future using all of her ideas, and he refuses to allow it. Brian is truly thinking about his children’s future, which is seriously inconsistent with Irene’s philosophy. Here, Irene’s role as the oppressor of Brian’s desires positions her as a figure of authority, wielding power over his actions and expressions. This imbalance of power and agency underscores the complexities of familial dynamics, and Irene’s most fundamental desire deep in her heart: to maintain the safety of her middle-class position in the Harlem community.

Irene’s passing and the unity and respect within the Black community reveal the precarious balance between societal assimilation and cultural authenticity, underscoring the challenges faced by Irene and Brian when navigating their own identities, relationships and desires within their marriage. With the wave of the Great Migration, many African Americans opted to migrate from the South to the North. Along with their arrival came their culture. In Harlem, as their population grew, African Americans began to coalesce and take proactive steps to elevate their social standing. Irene served as a member of the ticket committee at the Negro Welfare League. Being a cadre of the League naturally garnered her respect from the public. Furthermore, her husband’s profession as a doctor further solidified her social status, as stated by Stephen Robertson in his article: “the experience of illness and poor treatment was a common one for residents of Harlem … [P]hysicians and hospital care [are] in short supply, since neither public nor private agencies made much provision for the Black residents of Harlem” (Robertson, 102). Doctors, the job of Brian, were extremely rare at the time. Through Brian’s and Irene’s social status, Irene established a foothold in the upper middle class. Compared to others, their current lives are extremely stable. To be clear, Irene suppressed Brian’s wishes in order to stabilize this social status. However, advanced thinkers in the 1920s, Ernest Groves and William Ogburn, agreed that marriages should “provide self-expression of all members of the family” and that “if matrimony were to impose an infringement of personality, it would… be hopelessly out of accord with the life of the period” (Terrell, 49). Clearly, Irene almost single-handedly makes all the major decisions in the household, disregarding Brian’s ideas and philosophies. Yet, from a societal standpoint, a marriage where both parties share equal voice and decision-making power is considered healthier. So, why does Irene act like an oppressive dictator? From an alternate perspective, securing her social status may not be Irene’s most fundamental and primal desire. After experiencing the conflict between her perception of societal acceptance and her true feelings about her racial identity, she, unexpectedly, might also suppress her true self to conform to societal expectations. Meanwhile, it’s worth noting that Brian’s desires and feelings are not deeply explored in the novel. But it is a fact that the occasional setbacks and disagreements he encounters with Irene suggest limitations to his desires and values within the marriage. Thus, his potential idea of social advancement through Irene’s connections may also be a reason he ultimately compromises his own desires. The marriage between Irene and Brian is influenced by societal expectations of the time, particularly regarding racial identity and social class, leading to complexity and conflicts within their marriage. The pressure to maintain appearances and uphold social status affects the health of Irene and Brian’s marriage and their family as a whole. 

The interactions between Clare and John reflect that the harmony in an interracial marital is just an appearance and are the trigger for the breakdown of their marriage. Two years earlier in Chicago, when Irene visits Clare’s house for the first time and meets Clare’s husband John Bellew, she is shocked by his discriminatory language. What surprises her even more is that Clare is seemly unaffected by his words and even continues to be intimate with him: 

Clare handed her husband his tea and laid her hand on his arm with an affectionate little gesture. Speaking with confidence as well as with amusement, she said: “My goodness, [John]! What difference would it make if, after all these years, you were to find out that I was one or two per cent coloured?”

…“Oh, no, Nig,” he declared, “nothing like that with me. I know you’re no n*gg*r, so it’s all right. You can get as black as you please as far as I’m concerned, since I know you’re no n*gg*r. I draw the line at that. No n*gg*rs in my family. Never have been and never will be.” (Larsen, 45)

Clare chooses to conceal her true identity and is married to the racist John. In their daily life, John refers to Clare, whose skin is getting darker, as “Nig.” As a couple, he doesn’t use terms of endearment such as “honey” or “baby,” or even Clare’s name in a regular manner. Instead, he uses discriminative terms towards Clare. Clare, aware of this, chooses not to confront John about his language and treatments, and, shockingly, intentionally brings up the sensitive topic of her potentially having black skin, to demonstrate John’s tolerance towards Black people to Irene and Gertrude who come for visit, proving that Clare is confident that she can hide her secret of being Black. John, unabashedly, reveals his views. From his response, Larsen suggests that John’s tolerance towards Black people is almost nonexistent. His use of the extremely derogatory term “no n*gg*r” repeats three times in a short sentence reveals the depth of his racial prejudice and the entrenched nature of his views within the white supremacist ideology. Additionally, these remarks imply John’s trust in Clare’s racial identity, that she must not be Black. This sense of trust is the powder keg of their relationship. Once it collapses, the fuse will be ignited in the collapsing dust and friction, triggering an explosion in their relationship. To preserve this highly combustible fuse, Clare must seek a balance between compliance and authenticity.

Due to Clare’s deception and John’s prejudice, the dissonance between her true racial identity and the character she presents to him illustrates the fragility of their relationship built on lies and secrets, ultimately leading to its collapse. Two years later, Clare, eager to see Irene again, actively visits Irene’s home in Harlem. Because John often travels for work, Clare gains numerous opportunities to act independently without having to comply with her husband. Through the increasingly intimate interactions with Irene, Clare finds satisfaction in Harlem’s cultural events and the joy of reconnecting with Black friends. Simultaneously, she gradually casts aside the need to conceal her racial identity and doesn’t pay extra attention to it, leading to the ignition of the fuse that would rupture her relationship with John: One day, Irene and her friend Felise go shopping in town and coincidentally encounter John. John sees Felise, with her golden skin and the distinctive black curls typical of Black people, walking hand in hand with Irene. John takes off his hat, and “held out his hands, smiling genially. But the smile faded at once. Surprise, incredulity, and – was it understanding? – passed over his features” (Larsen, 125). The gesture of initially taking off his hat and extending his hands suggests openness and warmth. Coupled with the genial smile, these bodily movements indicate a welcoming demeanor, prepared to address the person he’s facing. However, the disappearance of the smile signifies a shift in John’s emotional state. His surprise indicates he’s caught off guard by something he never considered; his disbelief suggests he’s trying to convince himself to accept the truth. The mention of understanding adds complexity to John’s emotional response, suggesting that he is beginning to comprehend the significance of the situation. The subsequent question mark implies Irene isn’t entirely certain John has grasped the full extent of the truth, but he probably figured it out to some extent. Additionally, people in the 1920s were extremely polite. John’s inability to control his facial expressions in front of both acquaintances and strangers reveals his profound disdain for Black people and entrenched racism. These expressions highlight the complexity of his inner turmoil and set the stage for the next steps in his relationship with Clare. Later, he comes to a party at Felise’s house to find Clare: 

The roar of John Bellew’s voice above all the other noises of the room… He pushed past them all into the room and strode towards Clare. They all looked at her as she got up from her chair, backing a little from his approach.

“So you’re a n*gg*r, a damned dirty n*gg*r!” His voice was a snarl and a moan, an expression of rage and of pain. (Larsen, 142)

In traditional notions, two individuals are expected to deeply understand each other before marriage. As a Black woman, Clare doesn’t open up to John in the traditional sense; instead, she chooses to conceal her true identity, risking it for the sake of attaining powerful financial and social status. The risk, however, relies on John Bellew’s ignorance of Clare’s race. Now, consequences emerge. John knows everything. Larsen describes his thunderous roar with two entirely distinct sentences, solely to illustrate his complex feelings: shame, regret, pain, and intolerance. His dignity is completely stripped away by the realization that he is married to a Black woman. His aggressive behavior and derogatory language indicate his unwavering belief in his racial superiority. Clare’s withdrawal from his approach signifies both a physical and emotional recoil in the face of his hostility. We can see that Clare is not prepared to deal with John’s reaction of discovering her identity, indirectly leading to Clare’s fall, as she doesn’t want to confront the complexities of her interracial relationship. Her evasion of this complexity also reveals the destructive impact of racial prejudice and discrimination on individuals and society within the social context of the time. Their marriage subsequently heads towards collapse.

Clare sacrifices her true self for the sake of social acceptance and economic security within her marriage, which exemplifies the profound complexities of race, identity, and belonging in a society defined by rigid racial boundaries. Racism in the 1920s persisted as one of the most significant issues, prevalent across almost all regions in the US. Compared to White individuals, Black people experienced more poverty and hardships in their daily lives. Clare, having witnessed these disparities since childhood, was keenly aware of them. With a desire for the luxuries and comforts she had always longed for but never had, she married John. This reflects the sacrifices individuals might make to conform to societal norms and expectations. Judge Ben Lindsey, one of the 1920s thinkers, is a promoter of what he and others in the 1920s called the Companionate Marriage. He agreed that marriage, “a bond of two equal and independent personalities,” exists to promote in both parties a level of “self-development [that] neither could achieve in isolation” (Tebbetts, 281). Clearly, Clare did not maintain her independent personality within the marriage. Due to the necessity of keeping her black identity secret from her husband, who harbored extreme racism, she had to be constantly mindful of every word and action in her life. Moreover, from her interactions with John, it can be observed that she is more dedicated to serving and pleasing him than achieving complete equality, as is typical in most marriages. Although she obtains the material comforts she desires through the ministerial marriage, namely the lifestyle of an upper-middle-class white woman, Clare still experiences emotional emptiness, longing for childhood experiences, and continuously visits the Black community to see Irene. Claire sacrifices her true self in her marriage to John. Her decision to conform to societal expectations of white people and suppress her true racial identity reflects the unequal power dynamics shaping her marriage and the societal pressures she faces. She grapples with conflicting desires for personal fulfillment and social conformity, navigating the tension between achieving individual success and maintaining societal approval. While Clare deceives John, her “passing” was indispensable. With her relatively fair skin tone, she began “passing” at a young age. According to Merrill Horton, 

…black children who “pass”…probably learn to do so as a game and become progressively more alert to the advantages of simply being able to play the game. …Adult passing allows the fulfillment of childhood fantasies, is the maturation of those fantasies; Clare is in the World Series of passing. (Horton, 38)

“Passing” provided unprecedented opportunities for many Black individuals in the early twentieth century. As children, they initially perceived “passing” simply as a game of impersonation. Naive children found it amusing to deceive adults in this way, without realizing the broader implications of such behavior. Here, “passing” already began to emphasize the performative nature of racial identity. However, as the children matured, they increasingly recognized the many advantages that came with being perceived as White, prompting them to continue “passing” as a means of gaining social acceptance and economic opportunities. As a result, “passing” began to play a role in shaping individual racial perceptions within the societal environment. The statement that Clare “is in the world series” emphasizes her mastery of “passing.” At the same time, it also implies the high risks and immense pressures associated with crossing racial boundaries. Clare sacrifices her true self and authenticity. Although Irene reminds her that she is Black over and over again, she still believes she successfully assimilates into white society. However, she still occasionally visits the homes of her childhood friends, seeking traces of her carefree past. Clare’s understanding of her own identity is ambiguous; her marriage to John further deepens her confusion about her racial identity. Despite obtaining the material possessions she desires, her emotional and psychological unrest remains the cause of her inner turmoil. This also leads to her inability to accept the reality of being discovered. Overall, Clare’s marriage highlights the prevalent racism in society during the 1920s and reveals the survival challenges faced by individuals who do not conform to racial societal norms.

Irene and Clare both rely on marriage as a means to achieve social validation and legitimacy, but at the same time they both lose important things in their lives: Irene loses happiness, while Clare loses her true identity. In an article about the trope of marriage in Passing, Miles describes one similarity of Irene’s and Clare’s marriage: “Both women experience conflicting duality in their American identity represented in through marriages” (Miles, 53). Irene utilizes marriage as a means to obtain citizenship in and meet her societal duties as a member of the Black elite. She marries out of social obligation, and utilizes marriage to construct a bourgeois façade of gentility and refinement while at upper-middle class social parties. However, their marriage is a delicate dance of mistrust, desire and resentment. They circle each other warily, never quite touching, never quite trusting, simply bound together by the fragile threads of obligation, as well as the admiring gazes of people of their class. Irene is worn out by the trivialities of marriage from beginning to end, without experiencing the happiness she deserves. On the other side, Clare depends on the establishment of her husband for the benefits of advantage and ease in her life. Throughout her life, Clare never seriously thinks about her identity, as Davis describes in his article about identity in Passing: “Clare’s identity depends on how she is perceived by others and she manipulates those perceptions to construct her identity” (Davis, 49). Almost everyone assumes Clare is White. Clare herself, in turn, seamlessly disguises herself to increasingly resemble a white identity. She found that this camouflage brings immense advantages to her life. When Irene reminds her of her Blackness, she has already convinced herself that she is unequivocally white. Until the very last moment, when John roars accusations at her, she, unprepared for the psychological turmoil, still refuses to accept the reality of being Black, and leaps from the window.

In the final stage of Passing, Irene, who continues to live “safely” within the confines of her marriage to Brian, finds herself grappling with jealousy and irrationality as she navigates the complexities of her relationship. Meanwhile, Clare, despite attaining the material comforts she desires in her marriage to John, eventually ends the marriage in a dissonant note and culminates in her death, which underscores the inherent dangers of sacrificing one’s true identity for societal acceptance. Both Irene and Clare exploit their husbands to some extent. Larsen, with a past similar to Clare’s and a marriage similar to Irene’s, moved out of her family home at the age of nineteen and had minimal contact with them thereafter. She also experienced her husband’s infidelity and was left to amuse herself in Harlem. Perhaps, Larsen’s creation of Irene and Clare serve the purpose of reflecting her own experiences into Passing. The interconnected experiences of these three characters serve as a poignant reminder that marriages built upon the complexities of identity, underpinned by societal pressures and economic incentives, cannot be reconciled and often lead to further internal conflicts. Through the similar but starkly different fates of Irene and Clare, Larsen tells us that in a society defined by strict racial boundaries, authenticity, self-discovery, and genuine connections are crucial in navigating the complexities of marriage and identity. Thus, we must continually reassess our understanding of marriage and identity to ensure they are grounded in true self, mutual respect, and personal growth, rather than being constrained by societal expectations or economic factors, in order to achieve enduring, genuine love and fulfillment.

Works Cited

Carnevale, Alex. “In Which Nella Larsen Went To Europe To Escape Her Marriage.” This Recording, 30 Mar. 2017, thisrecording.wordpress.com/2017/03/30/in-which-nella- larsen-went-to-europe-to-escape-her-marriage/. Accessed 14 Feb. 2024.

Davis, Andrew W. Constructing Identity: Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality in Nella Larsen’s Quicksand and Passing. 1 May 2006. Digital Commons at Connecticut College, digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=enghp. Accessed 14 Feb. 2024.

Horton, Merrill. “BLACKNESS, BETRAYAL, AND CHILDHOOD: RACE AND IDENTITY IN NELLA LARSEN’S ‘PASSING.’” CLA Journal, vol. 38, no. 1, 1994, pp. 31–45. JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/44324945. Accessed 15 Feb. 2024.

Larsen, Nella. Passing. Modern Library trade paperback edition. ed., New York City, Modern Library, 2019.

Miles, Myiedra Jineane. Quiet Revisionists: Identity Reconciliation and the Trope of Marriage in the Fiction of Dorothy West and Nella Larsen. 28 Apr. 2008. Digital Georgetown, repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/551638/mjm285.pdf. Accessed 14 Feb. 2024.

Robertson, Stephen, et al. “THIS HARLEM LIFE: BLACK FAMILIES AND EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE 1920S AND 1930S.” Journal of Social History, vol. 44, no. 1, 2010, pp. 97–122. JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/40802110. Accessed 15 Feb. 2024.

Tebbetts, Terrell. “‘Sanctuary’, Marriage, and the Status of Women in 1920s America.” Faulkner Journal, vol. 19, no. 1, 2003, pp. 47–60. JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/26156973. Accessed 15 Feb. 2024.